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Vana Parva, also known as the “Book of the Forest”, is the third of eighteen books of the Indian epic Mahabharata.〔J. A. B. van Buitenen (Translator), The Mahabharata, Volume 2, 1981, ISBN 978-0226846644〕 Vana Parva has 21 sub-books and 324 chapters.〔(Vana Parva ) The Mahabharata, Translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt (1894)〕 It is one of the longest books in the Epic.〔Monier Williams (1868), (Indian Epic Poetry ), University of Oxford, Williams & Norgate - London, page 103〕 It discusses the twelve-year sojourn of the Pandavas in the forest, the lessons they learn there and how it builds their character.〔Bibek Debroy (2011), The Mahābhārata, Volume 3, ISBN 978-0143100157, Penguin Books〕 It is one of the longest of the 18 books in the Mahabharata, and contains numerous discussions on virtues and ethics, along with myths of Arjuna, Yudhishthara, Bhima tales of “Nahusha the snake and Yudhishthira” as well as “Ushinara and the hawk”, love stories of “Nala and Damayanti”, as well as “Savitri and Satyavan”.〔〔 == Structure and chapters == This book has 21 sub-parvas (sub-books or little books) and 324〔(Last Chapter of Vana Parva ) The Mahabharata, Translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt (1894)〕 sections (chapters).〔〔(Vana Parva ) Mahabharata, Translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, Published by P.C. Roy (1884)〕 The following are the sub-parvas: :1. Aranyaka Parva (sections: 1-10)〔 :: Pandavas go into exile to the forest of Kamyaka. Sage Vidura advises Dhritarashta to recall Yudhishthira and give him back his kingdom. Dhritarashtra refuses, Vidura leaves and joins Pandava brothers. Vyasa, as well as Maitreya counsel Dhritarashtra to conclude peace with the Pandavas. Dhritarashtra refuses. :2. Kirmirabadha Parva (section 11) :: The battle between man-eating demon Kirmira and the giant Pandava brother, Bhima. Kirmira is killed. :3. Arjunabhigamana Parva (sections: 12-37)〔(Vana Parva ) The Mahabharata, Translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt (1894), pages 18-61〕 :: The parva introduces Krishna, his accomplishments in the past. Krishna criticizes gambling as one of four sins that ruins a man, laments he was absent when Yudhishthira accepted the game of dice. Yudhishthira expresses remorse and anguish for his gambling habit. Krishna suggests persuasion, followed by force if necessary, is appropriate to prevent one's friend before he commits a sinful act such as gambling. Draupadi appeals to Yudhishthira to wreak vengeance on Kaurava (Kuru) brothers. In Chapters 27 through 36, the theory of forgiveness is debated between various characters - should one always forgive, never forgive, and forgive sometimes; when is it appropriate to forgive people or oneself, when it is not; what are appropriate and proportionate punishment? The chapters also discuss anger, how it is destructive to a person and to society at large. Draupadi offers arguments of cause and effect of actions (karma), suggests free will, and questions whether forgiveness defeats the principle of consequences. Yudhishthira disagrees with Draupadi, and presents the theory that virtue is its own reward. Draupadi praises those who believe in free will and shape the future, she censures those who believe in chance or destiny. Bhima questions whether virtue is virtue if it creates misery for everyone; suggests that Dharma (virtue) and Artha (profit) and Kama (emotional pleasure) should normally go together, thereafter he presents arguments for use of will and force to regain the kingdom. Yudhishthira disagrees with Bhima, argues one must keep one's pledge once made. The arguments are left open ended, with no consensus conclusion presented, the characters retire from the debate pensively. Vyasa arrives, and shares the theory and knowledge of ''Pratismriti'' with the Pandavas. :4. Kirata Parva (sections: 38-41)〔〔Monier Williams (1868), (Indian Epic Poetry ), University of Oxford, Williams & Norgate - London, page 104〕 :: Arjuna meditates and lives like an austere Rishi in the forest, to gain knowledge. Mahadeva (Shiva) visits Arjuna, disguised as Kirata. They battle each other, which ends in draw. Mahadeva reveals his true identity. Indra and other deities visit Arjuna. :5. Indralokagamana Parva (sections: 42-51)〔 :: Arjuna visits heaven. The parva describes the city of Indra. Gods furnish celestial weapons to Arjuna. Goddess Urvasi seduces Arjuna, enters his bedroom. Married Arjuna declines to mate with her. Urvasi gets angry, curses. Deity Indra converts the curse into a boon. :6. Nalopakhyana Parva (sections: 52-79)〔 :: Yudhishthira continues in his anguish that his gambling error has caused, declares himself the most wretched person on earth. Vrihadashwa consoles him with the story of Nala, another prince who erred by gambling, and recovered from his mistake. Nalopakhyana parva recites the love story of prince Nala and princess Damayanti, who never met each other, yet fall in love with each other, after learning about each other's character, virtues, passions and beliefs through a hansa (swan). The feathery messenger transmits their love messages. Damayanti's father announces a Swayamvara - a contest between eligible bachelors so that Damayanti can watch and choose the man she wants to marry. The gods arrive to win over Damayanti, the gods pick Nala as their representative and messenger. Nala is in a bind, but tries honestly to convince Damayanti that she marry Indra, or one of the deities. Damayanti picks Nala, the human. One of the gods gets upset at Damayanti's choice, so he challenges Nala to a game of dice. Nala, like Yudhishthira, loses the game and the kingdom to Pushkara; he goes into exile, Nala and Damayanti are separated even though they want to be together. Damayanti runs away from her father's kingdom. Several chapters describe their various traumas and adventures. Damayanti's father finds her, she returns to the kingdom. A new, second Swayamvara is announced. Nala comes to the kingdom disguised as Vahuka. Damayanti discovers Vahuka, knows it is Nala. They meet, talk. Nala gets the kingdom back from Pushkara. Damayanti and Nala take over the kingdom, live happily ever after.〔 The story inspires Yudhishthira to focus on the future. :7. Tirtha-yatra Parva (sections: 80-157)〔 :: Sage Narada visits the Pandava brothers. He suggests tirthas to Pandava brothers - a visit to holy places in India. The parva provides the benefits, directions and a list of ''tirthas'' - Kurukshetra, Ganga, Yamuna, Prayaga, Pratisthana, Brahmasara, and others. Pandavas start the Narada-recommended tirthas. The history of various gods is described. The parva includes the story of Ushinara, the pigeon and the hawk. The hawk wants to eat the pigeon, pigeon comes to Ushinara and requests protection from hawk. The hawk questions Ushinara as to why he is going against Dharma - the principles of life. Ushinara explains that it is his Dharma to protect the weak from the strong. The hawk claims that by denying him pigeon-food, Ushinara is denying food to his children and his wife in his nest, as well he who is oppressed by hunger; by protecting the pigeon, Ushinara is saving the pigeon but killing baby-hawks. The parva then presents the theory of contesting virtues,〔See conflict problem in (virtue ethics ), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University (2012)〕 that is when one good is in conflict with another good, how must one choose between two goods, between two conflicting virtues? Ushinara answers with the theory of preponderance, then offers to hunt and feed the hawk, an offer that is questioned and rejected on celestial Dharma grounds by the hawk. Finally, to save the pigeon's life, Ushinara offers his own flesh to feed the hawk. The hawk accepts the offer; Ushinara cuts his own flesh of volume equal to pigeon, and weighs it. It falls short, so he cuts and adds more of his own flesh. But the pigeon's weight keeps on increasing. Ushinara finally has to weigh his whole body to equal that of the pigeon - when he does so, the hawk reappears as deity Indra and the pigeon reappears as deity Agni. They restore Ushinara, praise his virtue and compassion. Other stories include king Janaka's sacrifice, king Somaka and his liberation from hell, how Bhagiratha brought Ganges river to earth from heaven, the births of Ashtavakra, Mandhata and Rishyasringa, the journey of Bhima for celestial lotuses. :8. Yaksha-yudha Parva (sections: 158-164)〔 :: A demon kidnaps Yudhishthira, Draupadi and the twins. Bhima finds and slays the demon. Pandavas arrive at the hermitage of Arshtishena. Arjuna returns from heaven. :9. Nivata-kavacha-yudha Parva (sections: 165-175)〔 :: Arjuna describes his travel, why he left, where he was, what he did. Arjuna shows the celestial weapons he now possessed. He demonstrates their effectiveness by destroying the aerial city of Hiranyapura, then proceeds to demonstrate before Yudhishthira his power further. In Chapter 175, sage Narada appears, counsels that war and weapons should not be unleashed unless there is necessary and compelling cause, that rash violence is destructive and wrong. This puts a stop to the violence. :10. Ajagara Parva (sections: 176-181)〔 :: Pandavas arrive at Kailaca. A mighty snake, Nahusha ties up the giant Pandava brother, Bhima. Yudhishthira searches for Bhima, finds him in snake's grip. The snake offers to free Bhima if Yudhishthira answers his questions. The snake and Yudhishthira ask each other questions. This is a discourse on Dharma, the theory of birth-rebirth, transmigration and how to achieve moksha in Chapters 180 to 181. These chapters also offers a theory of caste - claiming it is very difficult to ascertain one's caste because all orders have had promiscuous intercourse. Ajagara Parva claims people from all the four castes are without restriction constantly interbreeding. All four have the same speech, cohabit, they all are born and die the same way. What matters, claims Yudhishthira, is the character of a person.〔(Vana Parva ) Mahabharata, Translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt (1894), page 262 (Verses 31-34)〕 Yudhishthira and the snake then discuss the relative merit of four virtues (charity, kind speech, truthfulness and unenviousness), which virtue is better than the other? They discuss universal spirit and salvation from transmigration. The snake lets go of Bhima, is itself released from a curse, appears as Nahusha, and achieves salvation. :11. Markandeya-Samasya Parva (sections: 182-231)〔 :: Markandeya presents the story of yugas (Kreta, Treta, Dapara and Kali yugas), and of Vami horses. Through Chapters 200 to 206, the parva offers contrasting views - both traditional and ritualistic, as well as knowledge and personal development - on vice and virtues.〔(Vana Parva ) Mahabharata, Translated by Manmatha Nath Dutt (1894), pages 300-314〕 The parva, in Chapters 207-211, presents one of the many discussions on Karma doctrine, in Mahabharata. Chapters 211 to 215 explain the relationship between self discipline, virtues and qualities (sattva, rajas and tamas), how these qualities enables one to achieve knowledge of the supreme spirit. Markandeya-Samasya parva recites the story of Vrihaspati and of Skanda. :12. Draupadi-Satyabhama Samvada Parva (sections: 232-234)〔 :: Satyabhama asks Draupadi for advice on how to win affections of Krishna. Draupadi outlines duties of a wife. :13. Ghosha-yatra Parva (sections: 235-256)〔 :: Karna advises Duryodhana to confront the Pandavas in exile, but Dhritarashtra dissaudes Duryodhana. Karna and Duryodhana leave for Dwaitavana. They quarrel with Gandharvas, are defeated and held captive. A request for rescue is sent to Yudhishthira, who urges his brothers to rescue the captives, even though these captives have been persecuting them. Yudhishthira explains why rescuing the captives is the right thing to do. The brothers decide to rescue, because Gandharvas are growing danger to humanity. When Pandavas arrive, Gandharvas release Duryodhana. This act of kindness makes Duryodhana despondent. Karna soothes Duryodhana, then proceeds to a wave of conquest and victories. :14. Mriga Sapnovbhava Parva (section 257)〔 :: Yudhishthira has a dream about a deer, who pleads that Pandavas living in the forest have invited many people to live there. The residents hunt indiscriminately, and the deer fear they will be exterminated. The deer pleads Yudhishthira to move to another location, which will prevent deer species from extinction. Yudhishthira concludes that it is his Dharma to ensure welfare of all creatures, including animals in a forest. The Pandava brothers discuss it, agree that wildlife deserves their compassion, and decide to move. The Pandavas move from Dwaitavana forest to Kamyaka forest. :15. Vrihi Drounika Parva (sections: 258-260)〔 :: Chapter 258 describes the 11th year of Pandavas exile, Sage Vyasa visits the Pandavas. He instructs on morality. Vyasa recites the story of Rishi Mudgala, who after his death refuses to be taken to heaven - the abode of celestial happiness. The story then describes ''Parabrahma'', a place of contemplation and Jnana yoga, which is the path Mudgala chooses for his eternal emancipation. :16. Draupadi-harana Parva (sections: 261-270) :: Draupadi is kidnapped by Jayadratha. Pandavas set out to rescue her. The story describes the battle and death of Jayadratha's followers and his capture. Jayadratha is not killed, but questioned by Yudhishthira. :17. Jayadhratha Vimokshana Parva (section 271) :: Yudhishthira sets Jayadratha free. Jayadratha returns to his house in anger, seeking ways to take revenge against the Pandavas. :18. Rama Upakhyana Parva (sections: 272-291)〔 :: The parva recites a short summary of Ramayana, the other Indian epic, in order to comfort Yudhishthira who laments the long exile his brothers have suffered. :19. Pativrata-mahatmya Parva (sections: 292-299)〔 :: Pativrata-mahatmya parva describes the love story of Savitri - a princess, and Satyavan - a hermit. They meet, fall in love. Sage Narada informs Savitri of one defect of the virtuous man Satyayan, which is certain to kill him within a year.〔Monier Williams (1868), (Indian Epic Poetry ), University of Oxford, Williams & Norgate - London, page 37-39〕 Savitri accepts and weds Satyayan, nevertheless, saying, "Whether his years be few or many, be he gifted with all grace or graceless, him my heart has chosen, and it chooseth not again."〔 Savitri, who knows Satyavan will die soon, stays with him all the time. She follows him wherever, whenever he goes anywhere. One day Satyavan heads to the forest to collect wood, with Savitri following him. As predicted by sage Narada, the defect causes Satyayan's early death. Yama - the lord of death - appears before Savitri. Yama carries away Satyavan's soul; Savitri - in deep love for Satyayan, her husband - follows Yama.〔Aaron Shepard (1992), Savitri: A Tale of Ancient India, ISBN 978-0807572511, Albert Whitman & Company〕 The lord of death tries to console, discourage her and asks her to move on. Savitri refuses to relent, follows Satyayan's soul and Yama. She obtains four boons from Yama, which ultimately forces Yama to release Satyavan's life. Satyavan returns to consciousness. Savitri and Satyavan live happily together. :20. Kundalaharana Parva (sections 299-309)〔 :: The parva describes the story of Karna, how he was born to Kunti and deity Surya, why Kunti placed the baby in a basket and let him adrift on river ''Aswa'', how she felt sorry afterwards, how baby Karna was found by Radha and reared by Adhiratha. The chapters describe how Karna grows up and learns to be an expert bowman. Karna exchanges his divine ear-rings, for infallible arrow, with deity Indra. This introduction to Karna sets the stage for future chapters, as Karna plays a major role in later books of the Mahabharata. :21. Aranya Parva (sections: 310-324)〔 :: Pandavas return to Dwaitavana forest. They chase a deer who has carried away firesticks of a priest. The deer is too fast to catch. The Pandava brothers rest after exhaustion and from thirst. Each goes, one after another, to a lake to fetch water, where each dies. Finally Yudhishthira goes to the lake, where he laments the death of his brothers. Yaksha, with a booming aerial voice, appears. He interrogates Yudhishthira with 124 questions about nature of human life, necessary virtues for a happy life, ethics and morality.〔Manmatha Nath Dutt 〕 Yudhishthira answers the questions correctly. Yaksha revives Pandava brothers, and reveals himself as Dharma, awards Yudhishthira boons that will help the Pandavas in their 13th required year of concealed life. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Vana Parva」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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